Ukufika kwale chip kushintshe indlela yokuthuthukiswa kwe-chip!
Ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yama-1970, amaprosesa angu-8-bit ayesewubuchwepheshe obuthuthuke kakhulu ngaleso sikhathi, futhi izinqubo ze-CMOS zazisengozini emkhakheni we-semiconductor. Onjiniyela kwa-AT&T Bell Labs bathatha isinyathelo esinesibindi ekusaseni, behlanganisa izinqubo zokukhiqiza ze-CMOS ezingama-3.5-micron ezisezingeni eliphezulu kanye nokwakhiwa kweprosesa engu-32-bit entsha emzamweni wokudlula abancintisana nabo ekusebenzeni kwe-chip, bedlula i-IBM ne-Intel.
Nakuba ukusungulwa kwabo, i-Bellmac-32 microprocessor, kwehlulekile ukufeza impumelelo kwezentengiselwano yemikhiqizo yangaphambilini njenge-Intel 4004 (eyakhishwa ngo-1971), ithonya layo lalilikhulu. Namuhla, ama-chip cishe kuwo wonke ama-smartphone, ama-laptop, namathebulethi athembele ezimisweni ze-complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) ezaqalwa yi-Bellmac-32.
Iminyaka yawo-1980 yayisondela, futhi i-AT&T yayizama ukuziguqula. Sekungamashumi eminyaka, inkampani enkulu yezokuxhumana eyayibizwa ngokuthi "uMother Bell" yayiphethe ibhizinisi lezokuxhumana ngezwi e-United States, kanti inkampani yayo engaphansi kwe-Western Electric yayikhiqiza cishe zonke izingcingo ezivamile emakhaya nasemahhovisi aseMelika. Uhulumeni wobumbano wase-US unxuse ukuhlukana kwebhizinisi le-AT&T ngezizathu zokungathembeki, kodwa i-AT&T yabona ithuba lokungena emkhakheni wamakhompyutha.
Njengoba izinkampani zamakhompyutha sezivele zizinzile emakethe, i-AT&T yakuthola kunzima ukuhambisana nayo; isu layo kwakuwukugxumagxuma, kanti i-Bellmac-32 yayiyisiqalo sayo.
Umndeni wama-chip eBellmac-32 uhlonishwe nge-IEEE Milestone Award. Imicimbi yokwembula izobanjelwa kulo nyaka ekhempasini yeNokia Bell Labs eMurray Hill, eNew Jersey, kanye naseComputer History Museum eMountain View, eCalifornia.
I-CHIP EYINGQAYIZIVILE
Esikhundleni sokulandela indinganiso yemboni yama-chip angu-8-bit, abaphathi be-AT&T baphonsela inselelo onjiniyela beBell Labs ukuthi bathuthukise umkhiqizo oguqukayo: i-microprocessor yokuqala yezentengiselwano ekwazi ukudlulisa ama-bits angu-32 edatha ngomjikelezo wewashi elilodwa. Lokhu akudingi nje kuphela i-chip entsha kodwa futhi nomklamo omusha—ongaphatha ukushintshana kwezokuxhumana futhi usebenze njengomgogodla wezinhlelo zekhompyutha zesikhathi esizayo.
"Asigcini nje ngokwakha i-chip esheshayo," kusho uMichael Condry, ohola iqembu lezakhiwo esikhungweni saseBell Labs eHolmdel, eNew Jersey. "Sizama ukuklama i-chip engasekela kokubili izwi kanye nokubala."
Ngaleso sikhathi, ubuchwepheshe be-CMOS babubhekwa njengendlela ethembisayo kodwa eyingozi esikhundleni semiklamo ye-NMOS ne-PMOS. Ama-chip e-NMOS athembele ngokuphelele kuma-transistors ohlobo lwe-N, ayeshesha kodwa elambele amandla, kuyilapho ama-chip e-PMOS ethembele ekuhambeni kwezimbobo ezishajwe kahle, okwakuhamba kancane kakhulu. I-CMOS yasebenzisa umklamo ohlanganisiwe owandisa isivinini ngenkathi isonga amandla. Izinzuzo ze-CMOS zazithakazelisa kakhulu kangangokuthi imboni yasheshe yaqaphela ukuthi noma ngabe idinga ama-transistors aphindwe kabili (i-NMOS ne-PMOS esangweni ngalinye), yayifanele.
Ngokuthuthuka okusheshayo kobuchwepheshe be-semiconductor obuchazwe yi-Moore's Law, izindleko zokuphindaphindana kwe-transistor zaba lula futhi ekugcineni azinakwa. Kodwa-ke, lapho i-Bell Labs iqala lo mjaho onobungozi obukhulu, ubuchwepheshe bokukhiqiza be-CMOS obukhulu babungakaqinisekiswa futhi izindleko zaziphezulu kakhulu.
Lokhu akuzange kukwethuse iBell Labs. Le nkampani yasebenzisa ubuchwepheshe bamakhampasi ayo eHolmdel, eMurray Hill, naseNaperville, e-Illinois, futhi yahlanganisa "ithimba lamaphupho" lonjiniyela be-semiconductor. Ithimba lalihlanganisa uCondrey, uSteve Conn, inkanyezi ekhulayo ekuklanyweni kwama-chip, uVictor Huang, omunye umklami we-microprocessor, kanye nabasebenzi abaningi abavela ku-AT&T Bell Labs. Baqala ukuba yingcweti yenqubo entsha ye-CMOS ngo-1978 futhi bakha i-microprocessor engu-32-bit kusukela ekuqaleni.
Qala ngokuklama izakhiwo
UCondrey wayeyilungu le-IEEE Fellow futhi kamuva wakhonza njengeSikhulu Esiphezulu Sezobuchwepheshe se-Intel. Ithimba lezakhiwo ayelihola lalizibophezele ekwakheni uhlelo olwalusekela uhlelo lokusebenza lwe-Unix kanye nolimi lwe-C. Ngaleso sikhathi, kokubili i-Unix kanye nolimi lwe-C kwakusakhula, kodwa kwakuhloswe ukuba kulawule. Ukuze badlule umkhawulo wememori obaluleke kakhulu wama-kilobytes (KB) ngaleso sikhathi, bethula isethi yemiyalelo eyinkimbinkimbi eyayidinga izinyathelo ezimbalwa zokwenza futhi eyayingaqeda imisebenzi ngaphakathi komjikelezo wewashi elilodwa.
Onjiniyela baklame ama-chip asekela i-VersaModule Eurocard (VME) parallel bus, evumela ukubalwa kwe-distributed futhi ivumele ama-node amaningi ukuthi acubungule idatha ngokuhambisana. Ama-chip ahambisana ne-VME nawo awenza akwazi ukusetshenziswa ukulawula ngesikhathi sangempela.
Ithimba libhale inguqulo yalo ye-Unix futhi layinika amakhono esikhathi sangempela ukuqinisekisa ukuhambisana ne-automation yezimboni kanye nezinhlelo zokusebenza ezifanayo. Onjiniyela be-Bell Labs baphinde basungula i-domino logic, eyandisa isivinini sokucubungula ngokunciphisa ukubambezeleka kwamasango e-logic ayinkimbinkimbi.
Amasu okuhlola nokuqinisekisa engeziwe athuthukiswe futhi aqaliswa nge-module ye-Bellmac-32, iphrojekthi yokuqinisekisa nokuhlola eyinkimbinkimbi yama-chip amaningi eholwa nguJen-Hsun Huang eyathola amaphutha angenalutho noma acishe abe yi-zero ekukhiqizweni kwama-chip ayinkimbinkimbi. Lokhu kwakuwukuqala emhlabeni kokuhlolwa kwesekethe ehlanganisiwe enkulu kakhulu (i-VLSI). Onjiniyela be-Bell Labs bathuthukise uhlelo oluhlelekile, bahlola ngokuphindaphindiwe umsebenzi wozakwabo, futhi ekugcineni bathola ukubambisana okungenamthungo emindenini eminingi yama-chip, kwaphetha ngohlelo oluphelele lwe-microcomputer.
Okulandelayo kuza ingxenye eyinselele kakhulu: ukukhiqizwa kwangempela kwe-chip.
“Ngaleso sikhathi, ukwakheka, ukuhlolwa, kanye nobuchwepheshe bokukhiqiza obukhiqiza kakhulu babuyivelakancane kakhulu,” kukhumbula uKang, kamuva owaba ngumongameli we-Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) kanye nomfundi we-IEEE. Uphawula ukuthi ukuntuleka kwamathuluzi e-CAD okuqinisekisa i-full-chip kwaphoqa ithimba ukuthi liphrinte imidwebo emikhulu yeCalcomp. Lezi zinhlelo zibonisa ukuthi ama-transistors, izintambo, kanye nama-interconnect kufanele ahlelwe kanjani ngaphakathi kwe-chip ukuze anikeze umphumela ofiselekayo. Ithimba lawahlanganisa phansi ngetheyiphu, akha isikwele esikhulu esidweba ngaphezu kwamamitha ayi-6 ohlangothini. UKang nozakwabo badweba isekethe ngayinye ngesandla ngamapensela anemibala, befuna ukuxhumana okuphukile kanye nama-interconnect ahambisanayo noma angaphathwanga kahle.
Lapho umklamo ongokoqobo usuqediwe, ithimba labhekana nenye inselele: ukukhiqiza. Ama-chips akhiqizwa esitshalweni iWestern Electric e-Allentown, ePennsylvania, kodwa uKang ukhumbula ukuthi izinga lokukhiqiza (iphesenti lama-chips ku-wafer elihlangabezana nezindinganiso zokusebenza kanye nekhwalithi) laliphansi kakhulu.
Ukuze babhekane nalokhu, uKang nozakwabo babeya esitshalweni besuka eNew Jersey nsuku zonke, befingqa imikhono yabo futhi benza noma yini eyayidingeka, okuhlanganisa ukushanela phansi kanye nokulinganisa imishini yokuhlola, ukwakha ubungane nokuqinisekisa wonke umuntu ukuthi umkhiqizo oyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu isitshalo esake sazama ukuwukhiqiza ungenziwa lapho.
“Inqubo yokwakha iqembu ihambe kahle,” kusho uKang. “Ngemva kwezinyanga ezimbalwa, iWestern Electric yakwazi ukukhiqiza ama-chip asezingeni eliphezulu ngobuningi obudlula isidingo.”
Inguqulo yokuqala ye-Bellmac-32 yakhishwa ngo-1980, kodwa yehluleka ukufeza okulindelwe. Imvamisa yokusebenza kwayo yayiyi-2 MHz kuphela, hhayi i-4 MHz. Onjiniyela bathole ukuthi imishini yokuhlola ye-Takeda Riken esezingeni eliphezulu ababeyisebenzisa ngaleso sikhathi yayinephutha, nemiphumela yomugqa wokudlulisela phakathi kwe-probe nekhanda lokuhlola ibangela izilinganiso ezinganembile. Basebenzisana nethimba le-Takeda Riken ukuthuthukisa ithebula lokulungisa ukulungisa amaphutha okulinganisa.
Ama-chip esizukulwane sesibili se-Bellmac ayenesivinini sewashi esingaphezu kuka-6.2 MHz, ngezinye izikhathi sifinyelela ku-9 MHz. Lokhu kwakubhekwa njengokushesha kakhulu ngaleso sikhathi. Iprosesa ye-Intel 8088 engu-16-bit eyakhishwa yi-IBM ku-PC yayo yokuqala ngo-1981 yayinesivinini sewashi esingu-4.77 MHz kuphela.
Kungani iBellmac-32 ingazange't iba yinto evamile
Naphezu kwesithembiso sayo, ubuchwepheshe beBellmac-32 abuzange busetshenziswe kabanzi kwezentengiselwano. Ngokusho kukaCondrey, i-AT&T yaqala ukubheka umenzi wemishini i-NCR ngasekupheleni kwawo-1980 futhi kamuva yaphendukela ekuthengweni, okusho ukuthi inkampani yakhetha ukusekela imigqa ehlukene yemikhiqizo yama-chip. Ngaleso sikhathi, ithonya leBellmac-32 lase liqalile ukukhula.
“Ngaphambi kweBellmac-32, i-NMOS yayilawula imakethe,” kusho uCondry. “Kodwa i-CMOS yashintsha isimo ngoba yabonakala iyindlela ephumelela kakhulu yokuyisebenzisa ngendlela ephumelelayo.”
Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, lokhu kuqaphela kwashintsha imboni ye-semiconductor. I-CMOS yayizoba yisisekelo sama-microprocessor anamuhla, inika amandla inguquko yedijithali kumadivayisi afana namakhompyutha edeskithophu nama-smartphone.
Ukuhlolwa kwesibindi kweBell Labs—ngokusebenzisa inqubo yokukhiqiza engakahlolwa futhi ehlanganisa isizukulwane sonke sokwakhiwa kwama-chip—kwakuyingqophamlando emlandweni wobuchwepheshe.
Njengoba uSolwazi Kang esho: “Sasihamba phambili kulokho okwakungenzeka. Sasingalandeli nje indlela ekhona, sasiqala umzila omusha.” USolwazi Huang, kamuva owaba yisekela lomqondisi we-Singapore Institute of Microelectronics futhi oyi-IEEE Fellow, uyanezela: “Lokhu kwakuhlanganisa hhayi nje ukwakheka nokuklama kwama-chip kuphela, kodwa nokuqinisekiswa kwama-chip amakhulu – kusetshenziswa i-CAD kodwa ngaphandle kwamathuluzi okulingisa edijithali anamuhla noma ngisho namabhodi okusika isinkwa (indlela ejwayelekile yokuhlola ukwakheka kwesekethe kohlelo lwe-elekthronikhi olusebenzisa ama-chip ngaphambi kokuba izingxenye zesekethe zixhunywe ndawonye unomphela).”
UCondry, uKang noHuang bakhumbula leso sikhathi ngothando futhi bazwakalisa ukwazisa ngekhono nokuzinikela kwabasebenzi abaningi be-AT&T abamizamo yabo yenza umndeni wama-chip weBellmac-32 waba nokwenzeka.
Isikhathi sokuthunyelwe: Meyi-19-2025